Atmosphere

The layer of gases surrounding the surface of a planet, moon, or star.

Aurora

A phenomenon produced when the solar wind (made up of energized electrons and protons) disturbs the atoms and molecules in a planet’s upper atmosphere. Some of the energy produced by these disturbances is converted into colorful visible light, which shimmers and dances. Auroras have been seen on several planets in our solar system. On Earth, auroras are also known as the “Northern Lights” (aurora borealis) or “Southern Lights” (aurora australis), depending on in which polar region they appear.

Crater

A bowl-shaped depression caused by a comet or meteorite colliding with the surface of a planet, moon, or asteroid. On geologically active moons and planets (like Earth), craters can result from volcanic activity.

Earth

The third planet from the Sun and one of four terrestrial planets in the inner solar system. Earth, the only planet where water exists in large quantities, has an atmosphere capable of supporting myriad life forms. The planet is 150 million kilometers (93 million miles) away from the Sun. Earth has one satellite — the Moon.

Erosion

Natural processes that wear or grind away the surface of an object. On Earth, the major agents of erosion are water and wind.

Extraterrestrial

An adjective that means “beyond the Earth.” The phrase “extraterrestrial life” refers to possible life on other planets.

Fault

A geological term that refers to a fracture or a break in a hard surface like the Earth’s crust. This area is a zone of weakness and may be the site of earthquakes or volcanoes. All planets or moons with a hard crust are candidates for faults or breaks on their surfaces.

Great Red Spot

A circulating storm located in Jupiter’s upper atmosphere. The storm, which rotates around the planet in six days, is the width of two to three Earths. Galileo first observed the spot in the 17th century.

Greenhouse Effect

The result of a planet’s atmosphere trapping infrared heat, rather than allowing it to escape into space. This effect increases the planet’s surface temperature, a phenomenon known as global warming.

Impact

When one body strikes another with great force. Some examples include a meteor colliding with the Moon or a comet, such as Shoemaker-Levy 9, slamming into Jupiter.

Impact Event

A collision between two solar system bodies that releases exceptionally large amounts of energy. Some examples are the 1908 Siberian Tunguska impact by a comet or an asteroid and the asteroid that struck Earth 65 million years ago, which may have led to the extinction of the dinosaurs and other species of the Cretaceous-Tertiary era.

Ionosphere

A region of the Earth’s upper atmosphere where solar radiation ionizes the air molecules. This region affects the transmission of radio waves and extends from 50 to 400 kilometers (30 to 250 miles) above the Earth's surface.

Jovian Atmosphere

The atmosphere surrounding the giant, massive planet Jupiter. The Jovian atmosphere is composed primarily of hydrogen (90 percent) and helium (10 percent). Other minor ingredients include water, hydrogen sulfide, methane, and ammonia.

Jovian Planets

The planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. They are called Jovian planets because of similarities in their composition and location. This group is also known as the “giant planets,” the “gas planets” and, when grouped with the planet Pluto, the “outer planets.”

Jovian Winds

The hurricane-force, high-velocity motion of gas molecules in Jupiter’s atmosphere. The wind speed increases as one travels deeper into Jupiter’s atmosphere. The various patterns of atmospheric winds are easily identified in Jupiter’s upper cloud layer.

Jupiter

The fifth planet from the Sun and the largest planet in our solar system, twice as massive as all the other planets combined. Jupiter is a gaseous planet with a very faint ring system. Four large moons and numerous smaller moons orbit the planet. Jupiter is more than five times the Earth’s distance from the Sun. It completes an orbit around the Sun in about 12 Earth years.

Lithosphere

The solid part of a planet’s surface, composed of the crust and upper mantle. On Earth, it includes the continents and the sea floor.

Mantle

The interior region of a terrestrial (rocky) planet or other solid body that is below the crust and above the core.

Mars

The fourth planet in the solar system and the last member of the hard, rocky planets (the inner or terrestrial planets) that orbit close to the Sun. The planet has a thin atmosphere, volcanoes, and numerous valleys. Mars has two moons: Deimos and Phobos.

Mercury

The closest planet to the Sun. The temperature range on Mercury’s surface is the most extreme in the solar system, ranging from about 400° C (750° F) during the day to about –200° C (–300° F) at night. Mercury, which looks like Earth’s moon, has virtually no atmosphere, no moons, and no water.

Neptune

The eighth planet and the most distant giant gaseous planet in our solar system. The planet is 30 times the Earth’s distance from the Sun, and each orbit takes 165 Earth years. Neptune is the fourth largest planet and has at least eight moons, the largest of which is Triton. Neptune has a ring system, just like all the giant gaseous outer planets.

Ozone Layer

A region in the upper atmosphere that has high concentrations of ozone (triatomic oxygen, 0₃). The ozone layer protects the Earth by absorbing the Sun’s high-energy ultraviolet radiation.

Planet

An object that orbits a star. Although smaller than stars, planets are relatively large and shine only by reflected light. Planets are made up mostly of rock or gas, with a small, solid core. In our solar system, the inner planets — Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars — are the rocky objects, and most of the outer planets — Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune — are the gaseous ones. Because Pluto is made largely of ice, like a comet, some astronomers do not consider it a true planet.

Pluto

A dwarf planet whose small size and composition of ice and rock resembles the comets in the Kuiper Belt, a region beyond Neptune’s orbit where Pluto resides. Pluto was considered the ninth planet until August 2006, when the International Astronomical Union reclassified it as a dwarf planet. Pluto’s orbit is more elliptical than those of the eight solar system planets.

Regolith

The layer of loose rock resting on bedrock (sometimes called mantle rock), found on the Earth, the Moon, or a planet. Regolith is made up of soils, sediments, weathered rock, and hard, near-surface crusts. On the surface of the Moon, regolith is a fine rocky layer of fragmentary debris (or dust) produced mainly by meteoroid collisions.

Saturn

The sixth planet in the solar system, noted for its obvious ring structure. Saturn is almost ten times the Earth’s distance from the Sun. The planet completes a circuit around the Sun in about 30 Earth years. Saturn is the second largest and the least dense planet in our solar system. The planet has more than 21 moons, including Titan, the second largest known moon in our solar system.

Secondary Atmosphere

A gas or gases, such as helium, that a planet discharges from its interior after having lost its primary or primordial atmosphere.

Seismic Wave

The transfer of energy throughout a celestial object, such as a planet, resulting from an external impact or an internal event. On Earth, seismic waves are generated primarily by earthquakes.

Terrestrial Planets

The four planets of the inner solar system (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) are called terrestrial planets because they are made up mostly of rock.

Uranus

The third largest planet in the solar system and the seventh from the Sun. Uranus is 19 times the Earth’s distance from the Sun and completes a circuit around the Sun in about 84 Earth years. This gaseous, giant outer planet has a visible ring system and over 20 moons, the largest of which is Titania. Uranus is tipped on its side, with a rotation axis in nearly the same plane as its orbit.

Venus

An inner, terrestrial (rocky) planet that is slightly smaller than Earth. Located between the orbits of Mercury and Earth, Venus has a very thick atmosphere that is covered by a layer of clouds that produce a “greenhouse effect” on the planet. Venus’s surface temperature is roughly 480° C (900° F), making it the hottest planet in the solar system.

Volcano

A break or vent in the crust of a planet or moon that can spew extremely hot ash, scorching gases, and molten rock. The term volcano also refers to the mountain formed by volcanic material.